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(Verbalism in the Narrative )Tj
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(Jes\372s Rosel, Antonio Caballer, Pilar Jara, and Juan Carlos )Tj
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(Abstract:)Tj
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( This study examined the use of verbalisms by 62 children aged 7\22614 )Tj
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(who were totally blind from birth and 64 sighted children. It found that\
a )Tj
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(child's degree of sight and gender did not affect the frequency with whi\
ch )Tj
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(verbalisms were used; only age had a significant positive effect. The st\
udy )Tj
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(shows that language is a flexible structure that is used correctly by ch\
ildren )Tj
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(who are congenitally blind as they adapt to the language used by those a\
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(The authors thank the schools for children who are blind that are )Tj
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(run by the )Tj
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(Organizaci\363n Nacional de Ciegos )Tj
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(in Madrid and in )Tj
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(Alicante, as well as the Pizarrales and the Fonseca schools in )Tj
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(Salamanca \(Spain\), for the invaluable aid they provided during )Tj
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(the course of this research.)Tj
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(In everyday language, there are words, such as )Tj
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(beauty,)Tj
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( that are )Tj
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(difficult for the average person to define. People who are blind )Tj
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(often use words that have a visual meaning \(such as "I have )Tj
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(seen," "Show me," or "The countryside is looking really green"\) )Tj
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(that they may have difficulty defining, and it is interesting to )Tj
T*
(observe the usage and meaning that such words of a visual nature )Tj
T*
(can have for them. In this article, we present our study of this )Tj
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(aspect of language behavior in children who were born blind, )Tj
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(which is known as )Tj
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(verbalism)Tj
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(\227the tendency to use words whose )Tj
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(concrete referent is unknown to the speaker. In doing so, we )Tj
T*
(reviewed the empirical research on this aspect of the language and )Tj
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(behavior of people who are blind, but did not make use of the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(theoretical reviews that deal with this problem because these )Tj
T*
(reviews were based mainly on research on verbalism \(Dokecki, )Tj
T*
(1966; Dunlea, 1989; Landau, 1997; Landau & Gleitman, 1985; )Tj
T*
(Mulford, 1988; P\351rez-Pereira & Castro, 1997; P\351rez-Pereira & )Tj
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(Conti-Ramsden, 1999; Warren, 1994\).)Tj
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(Review of research)Tj
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(Little research has been conducted on the verbalisms used by )Tj
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(people who are blind, in spite of its importance from the )Tj
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(linguistic, psychological, and educational points of view )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(\(Cutsforth, 1951; Gleitman, 1990; Henri, 1948; von Tetzchner & )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(Martinsen, 1980\). Cutsforth \(1932, 1951\) was the first author to )Tj
T*
(refer to the concept of verbalism as an aspect of the psychology of )Tj
T*
(people who are blind. He defined verbalism as "the use of abstract )Tj
T*
(concepts not apprehended by concrete experiences" \(Cutsforth, )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(1951, p. 48\). Thus, individuals who are visually impaired \(that is, )Tj
T*
(those who are blind or have low vision\) demonstrate verbalism )Tj
T*
(when they use terms that refer to vision \(such as names of colors )Tj
T*
(or words related to the sense of sight\).)Tj
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(To examine verbalism, Cutsforth \(1932, 1951\) used a word-)Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(association test with 26 children aged 8\22621 who had been totally )Tj
T*
(blind from birth. The results showed that "nearly half" the )Tj
T*
(responses included words that expressed visual qualities. )Tj
T*
(Cutsforth interpreted these findings as showing that the sensory )Tj
T*
(experience \(touch, hearing, taste, and smell\) of a person who is )Tj
T*
(blind was replaced by that of the sighted; that is, the language and )Tj
T*
(cognition of persons who are blind were a compensatory copy of )Tj
T*
(those of persons who are sighted. From this interpretation, he )Tj
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(inferred psychopathological and social consequences for people )Tj
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(with little or no vision.)Tj
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(Henri \(1948\) administered a word-definition test and a gestural )Tj
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(test to a group of children who had been blind from birth. First, )Tj
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(the children were asked for the definition of words with concrete )Tj
T*
(referents, and when a child gave the correct definition, he or she )Tj
T*
(was then asked to describe the object by means of gestures. Henri )Tj
T*
(found that the vocabulary that the children used was limited and )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(that the children were not able to express shapes \(in descriptions )Tj
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(of objects like )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(roof)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( and )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(stirrup\))Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( or how things worked using their )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(hands. The children were also given a word-association test with )Tj
T*
(the list used by Cutsforth \(1932, 1951\), and similar results were )Tj
T*
(obtained.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Nolan \(1960\) conducted an experiment that was almost a )Tj
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(replication of Cutsforth's work, but in this case using two )Tj
T*
(experimental groups made up of boys and girls aged 9\22620 who )Tj
T*
(were "totally blind or had light perception only." One group \(the )Tj
T*
(controlled-association group\) gave a single answer to a cue word, )Tj
T*
(while the other group \(the free-association group\) could answer )Tj
T*
(with all the words that the cue word evoked in them. The )Tj
T*
(controlled-association group was made up of 8 boys and 8 girls )Tj
T*
(who were blind or nearly blind \(they could perceive only direct )Tj
T*
(light at most\), and the free-association group included 18 boys )Tj
T*
(and 21 girls who shared the same characteristics as those in the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(other group.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Nolan \(1960\) found that the percentage of verbalisms was lower )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(in the free-association task than in the controlled situation, but the )Tj
T*
(difference between the two percentages was not significant. There )Tj
T*
(were differences, however, between the percentages in either of )Tj
T*
(his two tasks and those obtained by Cutsforth \(1932, 1951\). In )Tj
T*
(any case, Cutsforth's group showed a statistically higher degree of )Tj
T*
(verbalism.)Tj
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(Harley \(1963\) conducted research to determine the relationship )Tj
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(between verbalism and the age, intelligence, experience, and )Tj
T*
(psychosocial adjustment of children with visual impairments. To )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(do so, a group of children were given three tests: \(1\) word )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(definition, \(2\) identification through tactile exploration of objects \
)Tj
T*
(that had been well defined beforehand, and \(3\) a personal )Tj
T*
(adjustment test. The experiment was quantified by means of the )Tj
T*
(word-definition test, in which the children were asked whether )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(they had contact with the object that the word referred to. The )Tj
T*
(incidence of "verbalism for objects" was the number of objects )Tj
T*
(the child identified poorly \(but defined correctly\), and the score )Tj
T*
(for "visually oriented verbalism" was the number of verbalisms )Tj
T*
(about visual perception or about colors that a child used in the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(word-definition test. As the sample of participants for his )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(research, Harley randomly selected 40 children \(15 boys and 25 )Tj
T*
(girls\) who had been blind from birth. The children's ages ranged )Tj
T*
(from 6 to 14, and their IQs were between 65 and 132.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Harley found that only verbalism for objects correlated in a )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(significantly negative way with chronological age, with IQ, and )Tj
T*
(with the level of personal adjustment. No significant correlation )Tj
T*
(was found between visually oriented verbalism and the age, )Tj
T*
(intelligence, experience, or psychosocial adjustment of the )Tj
T*
(children who were blind. \(Harley did not attempt to determine )Tj
T*
(whether there was any correlation between the two types of )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(verbalism.\))Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(In an experiment that was almost a replication of Harley's \(1963\), )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(Demott \(1972\) administered the same word-definition and object-)Tj
T*
(identification tests as Harley, but also gave the participants a )Tj
T*
(semantic differential test. The sample consisted of three groups of )Tj
T*
(participants: 41 who were totally blind, 41 who were visually )Tj
T*
(impaired \(people who were legally blind\), and 61 paired )Tj
T*
(participants who were sighted \(each participant who was blind )Tj
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(impaired and sighted, all of whom were selected according to )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(academic level, age, gender, and IQ\). All the children were aged )Tj
T*
(6\22619. The results showed that there were no statistically )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(significant differences between the language used by the members )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(of the three groups. Furthermore, no differences were found )Tj
T*
(between the three groups with respect to object recognition.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Von Tetzchner and Martinsen \(1980\) conducted a study that was )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(also a near-replication of Harley's \(1963\), but used a group of 8 )Tj
T*
(children aged 8\22613 who were blind and a control group of 8 )Tj
T*
(sighted children who were paired with the group of blind children )Tj
T*
(according to age and gender. The sighted children performed an )Tj
T*
(object-recognition task while blindfolded. The only statistically )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(significant result was a significant negative correlation between )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(the level of language \(number of correctly defined words\) and )Tj
T*
(verbalism. No quantitative studies were conducted to compare the )Tj
T*
(performance of participants who were blind and those who were )Tj
T*
(sighted, but both groups used verbalisms.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(McGinnis \(1981\) tested the oral and gestural communication of )Tj
0 -1.384 TD
(six children who were blind aged 3 1)Tj
/T1_1 1 Tf
(\244)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(2 to 5, who were matched )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(with six children who were sighted according to age, language, )Tj
T*
(and IQ. This author tested the children individually and held a )Tj
T*
(one-hour conversation with each of them, which was audiotaped, )Tj
T*
(while an observer noted the gestures made by the children. Terms )Tj
T*
(of a visual nature were classified as being of three types: \(1\) color \
)Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(words; \(2\) verbs with a visual reference \("see," "look," "stare," )Tj
T*
("watch," and so forth\); and \(3\) verbs with a visual reference but )Tj
T*
(that are used in idioms and mean things like "understand," )Tj
T*
("imagine," and so on. The findings showed that there were )Tj
T*
(statistically significant differences in the sighted children's use of )Tj
T*
(verbalisms in Categories 1 and 2, but not in Category 3. )Tj
T*
(McGinnis pointed out that the children who were blind used )Tj
T*
(fewer visual terms than did those who were sighted because these )Tj
T*
(words apparently had little value for them, even though in )Tj
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(idiomatic expressions, terms involving vision are "nonsensorial )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(concepts.")Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Monti's \(1983\) study involved a sample of 10 children aged 13\226)Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(16 who had been blind from birth or shortly afterward and 10 )Tj
T*
(sighted children of similar ages and genders to those who were )Tj
T*
(blind; all the participants had typical IQs and no other )Tj
T*
(impairments. Each child was asked to define 28 words referring )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(to four different semantic fields: objects, animals, movements )Tj
T*
(\(verbs\), and facial expressions. No statistically significant )Tj
T*
(differences were observed between the two groups in any of the )Tj
T*
(semantic fields, although in defining verbs of movement, there )Tj
T*
(was a nonsignificant tendency for the children who were blind to )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(give better responses than those who were sighted. Monti noted )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(that no differences were observed between the two groups of )Tj
T*
(children with respect to their capacity to define terms and, )Tj
T*
(therefore, their capacity for knowledge and language. On the )Tj
T*
(basis of these findings, Monti concluded that verbalism affected )Tj
T*
(only particular areas of language or certain semantic fields.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Landau and Gleitman \(1985\) conducted a longitudinal follow-up )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(study in which they examined the case of Kelli, a young girl who )Tj
T*
(was totally blind from birth, and a control group consisting of )Tj
T*
(four sighted children who were of the same age. They found that )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(Kelli used the verbs )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(look)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( and )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(see)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( correctly in a normal )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(conversation, and they described the linguistic contexts in which )Tj
T*
(she used each term. Landau and Gleitman also conducted )Tj
T*
(interviews \(or "clinical experiments" in the sense that Piaget used )Tj
T*
(the term\) with Kelli at age 36 months and found that Kelli )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(interpreted )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(look)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( as meaning "contact with the hands," whereas in )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(a similar situation \(but blindfolded\), the sighted children of the )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(same age understood )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(look)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( to mean "turn one's nose toward." Kelli )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(understood that the action of "seeing" referred to the perception of )Tj
T*
(objects that are situated at a distance from the speaker, with )Tj
T*
(nothing between the speaker and the object, or she showed the )Tj
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(object correctly when asked to "let Mommy see the toy" and hid it )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(in a suitable way \(for example, in her pocket\) when she was )Tj
T*
(requested to "make it so Mommy cannot see the car.")Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(With respect to color terms, Landau and Gleitman pointed out )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(that Kelli used up to 10 color terms correctly in her language and )Tj
T*
(that her knowledge of how to use them properly was gained from )Tj
T*
(the syntactic frames in which such terms appeared. She )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(understood that all the terms belonged to a superordinate domain )Tj
T*
(that is color, that they are used as adjectives \(properties\) )Tj
T*
(describing concrete objects, but that it is not possible to apply )Tj
T*
(these terms to other properties \(such as size or shape\), and all this \
)Tj
T*
(was possible despite Kelli's understanding that she did not know )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(what they meant. Landau and Gleitman concluded that the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(learning of language \(and of terms that refer to sight or to colors\) )Tj
T*
(is achieved through the contexts \(people, objects, and language\) )Tj
T*
(in which speech occurs, as well as from the information provided )Tj
T*
(by the syntactic structures that contain the words that are spoken.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(In this brief review of research, it can be seen that five studies )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(\(Demott, 1972; Landau & Gleitman, 1985; McGinnis, 1981; )Tj
T*
(Monti, 1983; von Tetzchner & Martinsen, 1980\) included control )Tj
T*
(groups of sighted children. The method that was most frequently )Tj
T*
(used to collect data involved word association \(Cutsforth, 1932, )Tj
T*
(1951; Henri, 1948; Nolan, 1960\). Demott \(1972\), Harley \(1963\), )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(and Monti \(1983\) used word-definition and identification tests, )Tj
T*
(and only McGinnis \(1981\) and Landau and Gleitman \(1985\) )Tj
T*
(made use of natural expressive language tests with children. One )Tj
T*
(fundamental problem is the actual definition of blindness, and few )Tj
T*
(studies have taken this definition into account \(samples of )Tj
T*
(children who were totally blind from birth were tested by )Tj
T*
(Cutsforth, 1932, 1951; Demott, 1972; Henri, 1948; Landau & )Tj
T*
(Gleitman, 1985; McGinnis, 1981; and Monti, 1983\).)Tj
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(In the present study, the participants were children who had been )Tj
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(totally blind from birth. By including only children who were )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(congenitally totally blind, we hoped to avoid the problems of )Tj
T*
(psychological and visual variations in the legal definition of )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(blindness \(totally blind, light perception only, and low vision\) and )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(thus to have a more uniform sample. By studying only children )Tj
T*
(who were totally blind from birth we were able to avoid the )Tj
T*
(problem of individual differences with respect to experiences with )Tj
T*
(perception, knowledge, and the denomination of colors and with )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(respect to the terms )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(see)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( and )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(look.)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( A serious drawback in several )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(of the previous studies may have been that the continual )Tj
T*
(interaction between the researcher and the child may have led to )Tj
T*
(an implicit effect caused by the researcher \(Bonge, Schuldt, & )Tj
T*
(Harper, 1992; Rosenthal, 1967; Sheldrake, 2001\), which could )Tj
T*
(produce a bias toward the researcher's expectations in the results.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(In the previous studies, age was not taken as an independent )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(variable \(data on age were provided in Harley's, 1963, study\), and )Tj
T*
(neither was gender \(girls perhaps tend to use more expressive or )Tj
T*
(colorful language\). In the present study, we used a systematic )Tj
T*
(sampling method that was based on the child's age, gender, and )Tj
T*
(vision status and asked each child to tell a story and then to )Tj
T*
(describe one of the characters. The aim of this research was to )Tj
T*
(examine whether children's age, gender, and vision status \(blind )Tj
T*
(or sighted\) had any significant effects on the covariance structure )Tj
T*
(of their verbalisms.)Tj
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(Method)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
16.25 0 0 16.25 125.3922 168.0983 Tm
(A sample of 126 children was used. The blind children studied at )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(schools of the Organizaci\363n Nacional de Ciegos \(National )Tj
T*
(Organization of the Blind\) in Madrid and Alicante, Spain; the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(sighted children studied at the Pizarrales and Fonseca schools, in )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(Salamanca, Spain. To homogenize the sample of blind children, )Tj
T*
(only those who had been totally blind from birth and did not show )Tj
T*
(any other symptoms of physical, sensory, or cognitive impairment )Tj
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(were selected. One subsample was made up of 62 boys and girls )Tj
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(who were blind, while the other included 64 sighted boys and )Tj
T*
(girls, all aged 7\22614. None of the children had any educational )Tj
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(impairments or physical or growth problems. )Tj
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(Table 1)Tj
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( shows the )Tj
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(age groups. The aim of the sampling was to take 4 participants for )Tj
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(each stratum \(according to vision status, gender, and age\). )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(However, in the groups of 7- and 11-year-old children who were )Tj
T*
(blind, we were able to select only three children because in the )Tj
T*
(two schools for children who are blind with which we worked, )Tj
T*
(there were no more children who met the requirements for )Tj
T*
(participation in the study. A high percentage of children who are )Tj
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(congenitally blind have other associated physical and cognitive )Tj
T*
(impairments.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Each child was interviewed individually and was asked to tell two )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(stories and then to describe a character from one of the stories; all )Tj
T*
(these descriptions were audiotaped. Briefly, the first story each )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(child was asked to tell had to be based on the words )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(family, )Tj
T*
(parents,)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( and )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(friendship.)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( The second story was to be invented )Tj
T*
(according to the feelings evoked by the words )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(couple, hug,)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( and )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
T*
(tomorrow.)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( For the description of the character, each child was )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(asked to choose whichever character he or she wanted from the )Tj
T*
(first two stories and to describe the character as thoroughly as )Tj
T*
(possible \(what the character looked like, how the character )Tj
T*
(thought, the way the character behaved, the ideals the character )Tj
T*
(had, and so on\).)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(In an attempt to prevent the children from receiving possible )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(communication clues that could give rise to the researchers' )Tj
T*
(biases, after the instructions had been read to each child, the child )Tj
T*
(was allowed to tell the corresponding narration \(the two stories )Tj
T*
(and the description\) without interruption. The first story was )Tj
T*
(considered a trial run for the children, and only the terms used in )Tj
T*
(the second story were quantified.)Tj
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(The following observable variables were used for each )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(participant: gender \(V1\); vision \(V2\); age \(V3\); total verbalism i\
n )Tj
T*
(the story \(V4\), which was the total number of color-related words )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(or expressions referring to sight that a child used in the second )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(story; relative verbalism in the story \(V5\), which was the total )Tj
T*
(number of verbalisms in the story divided by the total number of )Tj
T*
(words uttered by the child in the story, multiplied by 10,000 to )Tj
T*
(avoid decimals; total verbalism in the description \(V6\), which )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(was the total number of words referring to colors or to sight-)Tj
T*
(related expressions used by the child in the description of the )Tj
T*
(character; and relative verbalism in the description \(V7\), which )Tj
T*
(was the total verbalism in the description of the character divided )Tj
T*
(by the total number of words uttered by the child in the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(description multiplied by 10,000. The relative verbalism variables )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(were used because the length of the stories that the children told )Tj
T*
(varied greatly.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(The specific hypotheses of this study, which can be seen )Tj
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(graphically in )Tj
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(Figure 1)Tj
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(, were as follows:)Tj
-4.829 -2.459 Td
(1. the effects among the variables: )Tj
3.297 -2.299 Td
(1. There is a latent variable, verbalism in the story )Tj
1.25 -1.2 Td
(\(F1\), which gives rise to the total verbalism in )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(the story \(V4\) and the relative verbalism in the )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(story \(V5\). )Tj
-1.25 -2.299 Td
(2. There is a latent variable, verbalism in the )Tj
1.25 -1.2 Td
(description \(F2\), which gives rise to the total )Tj
T*
(verbalism for the description \(V6\) and the )Tj
T*
(relative verbalism for the description \(V7\). )Tj
-1.25 -2.299 Td
(3. The latent variables F1 and F2 are influenced by )Tj
1.25 -1.2 Td
(the variables gender \(V1\), vision \(V2\), and age )Tj
T*
(\(V3\). )Tj
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(Language - Verbalism in the Narrative Language of Children Who Are Blind\
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(2. The two groups \(the participants who are blind and those )Tj
1.25 -1.2 Td
(who are sighted\) will be compared with a multisample )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(system to determine whether they have the same covariance )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(structure as that found in Hypothesis 1 for the general model )Tj
0 -1.2 TD
(of the use of verbalisms \(Dunn, Everitt, & Pickles, 1993; )Tj
T*
(Rencher, 1995; Satorra, 2001\). )Tj
-2.198 -2.349 Td
(Since the hypotheses make up an effect structure that includes )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(independent, intermediate, and dependent variables, we analyzed )Tj
T*
(the data by means of a structural equation model that responds to )Tj
T*
(the hypotheses put forward. This model describes a system of the )Tj
T*
(use of verbalisms, in terms of gender, sight, and age, that is )Tj
T*
(influenced by two factors, depending on the task being performed )Tj
T*
(by the child: telling a story and describing a character.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Structural equation models consist of simultaneous equations )Tj
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(containing observed and latent variables, and these models )Tj
T*
(therefore constitute a system of prediction that includes multiple )Tj
T*
(regression and factorial analysis. In the terminology used in )Tj
T*
(structural equation analysis, a latent variable is a factor that is )Tj
T*
(hypothesized from the observed variables and can be affected by )Tj
T*
(other variables or other factors. In psychology or education, )Tj
T*
(however, a latent variable is an implicit property that influences )Tj
T*
(the values of the corresponding observable variables. As can be )Tj
T*
(seen, the independent variables that were used in this model were )Tj
T*
(gender, vision, and age \(V1, V2, and V3\), while the dependent )Tj
T*
(variables were the variables measuring verbalism \(V4, V5, V6, )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(and V7\). The latent variables F1 and F2 were the intermediate )Tj
T*
(variables of the system. Note that no hypothesis on the covariance )Tj
T*
(between independent variables \(gender, vision, and age\) was )Tj
T*
(formulated.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(In the graphic representation of the structural equation model, we )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(followed Bentler's \(2004\) system of notation, which uses )Tj
T*
(rectangles to represent the variables observed \(V1, V2, V3, and )Tj
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(Language - Verbalism in the Narrative Language of Children Who Are Blind\
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(V4\); the latent variables \(F1 and F2\) are shown using ovals; the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(effects of some variables on others are represented by arrows )Tj
T*
(\(which show the direction of each respective effect\); the arrows )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(that are labeled with the letter "E" \(E1, E2, E3, and E4\) are the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(standard errors of the variables observed; and the arrows marked )Tj
T*
(with the letter "D" \(D1 and D2\) are the corresponding standard )Tj
T*
(errors of the latent variables.)Tj
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19.375 0 0 19.375 125.3922 583.1483 Tm
(Results)Tj
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16.25 0 0 16.25 125.3922 545.1266 Tm
(The data were analyzed using the EQS software for structural )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(equation models \(Bentler, 2004\). Before we began the analyses, )Tj
T*
(we performed an exploratory test for the normality of the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(observed variables about verbalism \(V4, V5, V6, and V7\) using )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test with the Lilliefors correction, and )Tj
T*
(they were found not to fit normality \(SPSS, 1999; Stevens, 1992; )Tj
T*
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001\). Because of the nonnormality of the )Tj
T*
(variables, we estimated the parameters using Satorra and Bentler's )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(\(1994\) "robust" system, which weights each case according to its )Tj
T*
(deviation with respect to the multinomial distribution of the )Tj
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(sample.)Tj
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(The results of the overall fit statistics for the model corresponding )Tj
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(to Hypothesis 1 are shown in )Tj
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(Figure 2)Tj
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(Satorra-Bentler robust )Tj
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(c)Tj
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(2 )Tj
16.25 0 0 16.25 292.9949 249.189 Tm
(\(11, )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
(N)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( = 126\) = 11.019, )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
(p)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( = .442, )Tj
-10.314 -1.3 Td
(RMSEA = .004, with CI for RMSEA = .000-.094, BBNFI = .951, )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(BBNNFI = 1.000, CFI = 1.000, which shows that the data fit the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(model proposed in a statistically significant manner. The )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(independent variables of gender and sight, however, are not )Tj
T*
(significant.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(To estimate a more parsimonious model \(with significant joint )Tj
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(statistics and with significant )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
(t-)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(values for each coefficient\), we )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(performed an analysis with the variable age as the only )Tj
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(independent variable of the latent variables verbalism in the story )Tj
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(Campus de Riu Sec, Apdo. 224, 12080 Castell\363n, Spain; e-mail: )Tj
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(<)Tj
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(Departamento de Psicolog\355a Evolutiva, Educativa, Social y )Tj
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(Metodolog\355a, Universitat Jaume I; e-mail: <)Tj
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(\(F1\) and verbalism in the description \(F2\) \(Maruyama, 1998; )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(Ullman, 2001\). This analysis yielded the following overall fit )Tj
0 -1.403 TD
(statistics for the model: Satorra-Bentler )Tj
/T1_1 1 Tf
(c)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
13 0 0 13 394.7363 712.2068 Tm
(2 )Tj
16.25 0 0 16.25 404.4863 708.0468 Tm
(\(15, )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(N )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(= 126\) = )Tj
-17.175 -1.303 Td
(15.468, )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(p )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(=)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
( .)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(418, RMSEA = .016, with CI for RMSEA )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(= .000-.086, BBNFI = .931, BBNNFI = .997, CFI = .998. The )Tj
T*
(results of the coefficients of the model can be seen in )Tj
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(Figure 3)Tj
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(The difference between the )Tj
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(c)Tj
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(2)Tj
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( values of the two models is 4.449, )Tj
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(and the difference in the degrees of freedom is 4. There are, )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(therefore, no significant differences between the two models \()Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(p )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
0 -1.3 TD
(= .349\). The advantage of the model in Figure 3 \(besides its )Tj
T*
(parsimony\) is that it is easier to perceive only the statistically )Tj
T*
(significant relationships between the variables.)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(The joint results of the models in Figures 2 and 3 change )Tj
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(\(different )Tj
/T1_1 1 Tf
(c)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
13 0 0 13 199.736 438.9015 Tm
(2)Tj
16.25 0 0 16.25 206.236 434.7414 Tm
( values are obtained with different degrees of )Tj
-4.975 -1.3 Td
(freedom\), but the probability of the fit and the coefficients of the )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(effects do so only slightly, which shows that the model is stable )Tj
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(\(Kaplan, 2000; Kline, 1998; Mueller, 1998; Raykov & Penev, )Tj
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(2001; Williams, Bozdogan, & Aiman-Smith, 1996\).)Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(To test Hypothesis 2, concerning the equality of the covariances, )Tj
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(we conducted a multisample analysis of covariance structure to )Tj
T*
(examine the equality of the two groups \(blind and sighted\) with )Tj
T*
(respect to the coefficients we obtained \(see Figure 3\). The overall )Tj
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(fit statistics for the model were Satorra-Bentler )Tj
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(c)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
13 0 0 13 444.3639 229.2497 Tm
(2)Tj
16.25 0 0 16.25 450.8639 225.0897 Tm
( \(2 groups, 12, )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
-20.029 -1.303 Td
(N)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( 1 = 62, )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(N)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( 2 = 64\) = 13.861, )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(p )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(= .309, RMSEA = .035, with CI )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(for RMSEA = .000-.101, BBNFI = .934, BBNNFI = .984, CFI )Tj
T*
(= .990. These results show that the two groups are not )Tj
T*
(significantly different in their covariance structure from the model )Tj
T*
(we obtained \(Yuan & Bentler, 2001\).)Tj
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(Discussion)Tj
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(The most important conclusion to be drawn from the analyses is )Tj
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(that a child's degree of sight has no significant effect on the )Tj
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(\(regardless of their gender or their state of vision\), which points to\
)Tj
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(The findings \(the significant positive relationship between age )Tj
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(and verbalism\) may seem to contradict those of Harley \(1963\), )Tj
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(who found no correlation between age and visually oriented )Tj
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(verbalism, but the task was different in the two cases; Harley used )Tj
T*
(word definition, whereas we used spontaneous narrative. As )Tj
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(Harley pointed out, the absence of a relationship between the )Tj
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(aforementioned variables is probably due to two reasons: first, his )Tj
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(method was perhaps not sensitive enough to measure this variable )Tj
T*
(and, second, Harley \(and the other authors\) may have used )Tj
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(general linguistic behavior of the community they live in. Thus, )Tj
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(as do sighted children and share the same morphosyntactic )Tj
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(particularities as they grow up, although they may use repetitive )Tj
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(color of skin, hair, eyes, clothes, and so on\) and in a univocal )Tj
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(Bentler, P. M. \(2004\). )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
(EQS structural equations program )Tj
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(manual.)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( Encino, CA: Multivariate Software. )Tj
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(Bonge, D. R., Schuldt, W. J., & Harper, Y. Y. \(1992\). The )Tj
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(experimenter as fixed effect fallacy. )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
(Journal of Psychology, 126)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(, )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(477\226486. )Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Cutsforth, T. D. \(1932\). The unreality of words to the blind. )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
0 -1.303 TD
(Teachers Forum, 4)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(, 86\22689. )Tj
0 -2.402 TD
(Cutsforth, T. D. \(1951\))Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
(. The blind in school and society. )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(New )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(York: American Foundation for the Blind. )Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Demott, R. M. \(1972\). Verbalism and affective meaning for )Tj
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(blind, severely visually impaired and normally sighted children. )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
0 -1.303 TD
(New Outlook for the Blind, 66, )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(1\2268. )Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Dokecki, P. R. \(1966\). Verbalism and the blind: A critical )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(review of the concept and the literature. )Tj
/TT2 1 Tf
(Exceptional Children, )Tj
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(32,)Tj
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( 525\226532. )Tj
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(Dunlea, A. \(1989\). )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(Vision and the emergence of meaning: Blind )Tj
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(and sighted children's early language.)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
( New York: Cambridge )Tj
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(University Press. )Tj
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(Dunn, G., Everitt, B., & Pickles, A. \(1993\) )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(Modelling )Tj
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(covariances and latent variables using EQS)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(. London: Chapman )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
(& Hall. )Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Gleitman, L. \(1990\). The structural sources of verb meanings. )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
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(Language Acquisition, 1)Tj
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(Harley, R. K. \(1963\). )Tj
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(Verbalism among blind children. )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(New )Tj
0 -1.3 TD
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0 -2.399 TD
(Henri, P. \(1948\). C\351cit\351 et verbalisme [Blindness and )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(verbalism]. )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique, )Tj
T*
(41)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(, 216\226240. )Tj
0 -2.402 TD
(Kaplan, D. \(2000\). )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(Structural equation modeling: Foundations )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(and extensions. )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. )Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Kemter, P. \(1999\). Concept formation and spatial perception in )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(blind persons. )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(Rehabilitation, 38)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(\(1\), 27\22632. )Tj
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(Kline, R. B. \(1998\). )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(Principles and practice of structural )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(equation modeling)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(. New York: Guilford Press. )Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(Landau, B. \(1997\). Language and experience in blind children: )Tj
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(Retrospective and prospective. In V. Lewis & G. M. Collis )Tj
0 -1.303 TD
(\(Eds.\), )Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(Blindness and psychological development in young )Tj
T*
(children)Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
(. Leicester, England: British Psychological Society. )Tj
0 -2.402 TD
(Landau, B., & Gleitman, L. R. \(1985\). )Tj
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(Language and )Tj
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(experience: Evidence from the blind child. )Tj
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(modeling.)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
( Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. )Tj
0 -2.399 TD
(McGinnis, A. R. \(1981\). Functional linguistic strategies of blind )Tj
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/TT1 1 Tf
(Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 5)Tj
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(, 210\226)Tj
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(214. )Tj
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(. Language acquisition in the blind )Tj
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(child: Normal and deficient)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(. London: Croom Helm. )Tj
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(Journal of )Tj
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(Visual Impairment & Blindness, 77)Tj
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(\(2\), 61\22663. )Tj
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(Mueller, R. O. \(1998\). )Tj
/TT1 1 Tf
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(modeling)Tj
/TT0 1 Tf
(. New York: Springer. )Tj
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(Smith & J. L. Locke \(Eds.\), )Tj
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(The emergent lexicon: The child's )Tj
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( San Diego, CA: )Tj
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(New Outlook for the Blind, 54,)Tj
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( 100\226102. )Tj
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